Pain is a protective mechanism that allows healthy animals to avoid tissue damage and to prevent further damage to injured tissue. Nonetheless there are many conditions where pain persists beyond its usefulness, or where patients would benefit from inhibition of pain. Voltage-gated sodium channels are believed to play a critical role in pain signaling. This belief is based on the known roles of these channels in normal physiology, pathological states arising from mutations in sodium channel genes, preclinical work in animal models of disease, and the clinical usefulness of known sodium channel modulating agents (Cummins, T. R., Sheets, P. L., and Waxman, S. G., The roles of sodium channels in nociception: Implications for mechanisms of pain. Pain 131 (3), 243 (2007); England, S., Voltage-gated sodium channels: the search for subtype-selective analgesics. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 17 (12), 1849 (2008); Krafte, D. S. and Bannon, A. W., Sodium channels and nociception: recent concepts and therapeutic opportunities. Curr Opin Pharmacol 8 (1), 50 (2008)).
Voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV's) are key biological mediators of electrical signaling. NaV's are the primary mediators of the rapid upstroke of the action potential of many excitable cell types (e.g. neurons, skeletal myocytes, cardiac myocytes), and thus are critical for the initiation of signaling in those cells (Hille, Bertil, Ion Channels of Excitable Membranes, Third ed. (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass., 2001)). Because of the role NaV's play in the initiation and propagation of neuronal signals, antagonists that reduce NaV currents can prevent or reduce neural signaling. Thus NaV channels are considered likely targets in pathologic states where reduced excitability is predicted to alleviate the clinical symptoms, such as pain, epilepsy, and some cardiac arrhythmias (Chahine, M., Chatelier, A., Babich, O., and Krupp, J. J., Voltage-gated sodium channels in neurological disorders. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 7 (2), 144 (2008)).
The NaV's form a subfamily of the voltage-gated ion channel super-family and comprises 9 isoforms, designated NaV 1.1-NaV 1.9. The tissue localizations of the nine isoforms vary greatly. NaV 1.4 is the primary sodium channel of skeletal muscle, and NaV 1.5 is primary sodium channel of cardiac myocytes. NaV's 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 are primarily localized to the peripheral nervous system, while NaV's 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, and 1.6 are neuronal channels found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. The functional behaviors of the nine isoforms are similar but distinct in the specifics of their voltage-dependent and kinetic behavior (Catterall, W. A., Goldin, A. L., and Waxman, S. G., International Union of Pharmacology. XLVII. Nomenclature and structure-function relationships of voltage-gated sodium channels. Pharmacol Rev 57 (4), 397 (2005)).
NaV channels have been identified as the primary target for some clinically useful pharmaceutical agents that reduce pain (Cummins, T. R., Sheets, P. L., and Waxman, S. G., The roles of sodium channels in nociception: Implications for mechanisms of pain. Pain 131 (3), 243 (2007)). The local anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine block pain by inhibiting NaV channels. These compounds provide excellent local pain reduction but suffer the drawback of abolishing normal acute pain and sensory inputs. Systemic administration of these compounds results in dose limiting side effects that are generally ascribed to block of neural channels in the CNS (nausea, sedation, confusion, ataxia). Cardiac side effects can also occur, and indeed these compounds are also used as class 1 anti-arrhythmics, presumably due to block of NaV 1.5 channels in the heart. Other compounds that have proven effective at reducing pain have also been suggested to act by sodium channel blockade including carbamazepine, lamotragine, and tricyclic antidepressants (Soderpalm, B., Anticonvulsants: aspects of their mechanisms of action. Eur J Pain 6 Suppl A, 3 (2002); Wang, G. K., Mitchell, J., and Wang, S. Y., Block of persistent late Na+ currents by antidepressant sertraline and paroxetine. J Membr Biol 222 (2), 79 (2008)). These compounds are likewise dose limited by adverse effects similar to those seen with the local anesthetics. Antagonists that specifically block only the isoform(s) critical for nocioception are expected to have increased efficacy since the reduction of adverse effects caused by block of off-target channels should enable higher dosing and thus more complete block of target channels isoforms.
Four NaV isoforms, NaV 1.3, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9, have been specifically indicated as likely pain targets. NaV 1.3 is normally found in the pain sensing neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) only early in development and is lost soon after birth both in humans and in rodents. Nonetheless, nerve damaging injuries have been found to result in a return of the NaV 1.3 channels to DRG neurons and this may contribute to the abnormal pain signaling in various chronic pain conditions resulting from nerve damage (neuropathic pain). These data have led to the suggestion that pharmaceutical block of NaV 1.3 could be an effective treatment for neuropathic pain. In opposition to this idea, global genetic knockout of NaV 1.3 in mice does not prevent the development of allodynia in mouse models of neuropathic pain (Nassar, M. A. et al., Nerve injury induces robust allodynia and ectopic discharges in NaV 1.3 null mutant mice. Mol Pain 2, 33 (2006)). It remains unknown whether compensatory changes in other channels allow for normal neuropathic pain in NaV 1.3 knockout mice, though it has been reported that knockout of NaV 1.1 results in drastic upregulation of NaV 1.3. The converse effect in NaV 1.3 knockouts might explain these results.
NaV 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9 are highly expressed in DRG neurons, including the neurons whose axons make up the C-fibers and Aδ nerve fibers that are believed to carry most pain signals from the nocioceptive terminals to the central nervous. Like NaV 1.3, NaV 1.7 expression increases after nerve injury and may contribute to neuropathic pain states. The localization of NaV 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9 in nocioceptors led to the hypothesis that reducing the sodium currents through these channels might alleviate pain. Indeed, specific interventions that reduce the levels of these channels have proven effective in animal models of pain.
Specific reduction of NaV 1.7 in rodents by multiple different techniques has resulted in the reduction of observable pain behaviors in model animals. Injection of a viral antisense NaV 1.7 cDNA construct greatly reduces normal pain responses due to inflammation or mechanical injury (Yeomans, D. C. et al., Decrease in inflammatory hyperalgesia by herpes vector-mediated knockdown of NaV 1.7 sodium channels in primary afferents. Hum Gene Ther 16 (2), 271 (2005)). Likewise, a genetic knockout of NaV 1.7 in a subset of nociceptor neurons reduced acute and inflammatory pain in mouse models (Nassar, M. A. et al., Nociceptor-specific gene deletion reveals a major role for NaV 1.7 (PN1) in acute and inflammatory pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 (34), 12706 (2004)). Global knockouts of NaV 1.7 in mice lead to animals that die on the first day after birth. These mice fail to feed and this is the presumed cause of death.
Treatments that specifically reduce NaV 1.8 channels in rodent models effectively reduce pain sensitivity. Knockdown of NaV 1.8 in rats by intrathecal injection of antisense oligodeoxynucleotides reduces neuropathic pain behaviors, while leaving acute pain sensation intact (Lai, J. et al., Inhibition of neuropathic pain by decreased expression of the tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel, NaV1.8. Pain 95 (1-2), 143 (2002); Porreca, F. et al., A comparison of the potential role of the tetrodotoxin-insensitive sodium channels, PN3/SNS and NaN/SNS2, in rat models of chronic pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 (14), 7640 (1999)). Global genetic knockout of NaV 1.8 in mice or specific destruction of NaV 1.8 expressing neurons greatly reduces perception of acute mechanical, inflammatory, and visceral pain (Akopian, A. N. et al., The tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel SNS has a specialized function in pain pathways. Nat Neurosci 2 (6), 541 (1999); Abrahamsen, B. et al., The cell and molecular basis of mechanical, cold, and inflammatory pain. Science 321 (5889), 702 (2008); Laird, J. M., Souslova, V., Wood, J. N., and Cervero, F., Deficits in visceral pain and referred hyperalgesia in NaV 1.8 (SNS/PN3)-null mice. J Neurosci 22 (19), 8352 (2002)). In contrast to the antisense experiments in rats, genetic knockout mice appear to develop neuropathic pain behaviors normally after nerve injury (Lai, J. et al., Inhibition of neuropathic pain by decreased expression of the tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel, NaV1.8. Pain 95 (1-2), 143 (2002); Akopian, A. N. et al., The tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel SNS has a specialized function in pain pathways. Nat Neurosci 2 (6), 541 (1999); Abrahamsen, B. et al., The cell and molecular basis of mechanical, cold, and inflammatory pain. Science 321 (5889), 702 (2008); Laird, J. M., Souslova, V., Wood, J. N., and Cervero, F., Deficits in visceral pain and referred hyperalgesia in NaV 1.8 (SNS/PN3)-null mice. J Neurosci 22 (19), 8352 (2002)).
NaV 1.9 global knock out mice have decreased sensitivity to inflammation induced pain, despite normal acute, and neuropathic pain behaviors (Amaya, F. et al., The voltage-gated sodium channel Na(v)1.9 is an effector of peripheral inflammatory pain hypersensitivity. J Neurosci 26 (50), 12852 (2006); Priest, B. T. et al., Contribution of the tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.9 to sensory transmission and nociceptive behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26), 9382 (2005)). Spinal knockdown of NaV 1.9 had no apparent effect on pain behavior in rats (Porreca, F. et al., A comparison of the potential role of the tetrodotoxin-insensitive sodium channels, PN3/SNS and NaN/SNS2, in rat models of chronic pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 (14), 7640 (1999)).
The understanding of the role of NaV channels in human physiology and pathology has been greatly advanced by the discovery and analysis of naturally occurring human mutations. NaV 1.1 and NaV 1.2 mutations result in various forms of epilepsy (Fujiwara, T., Clinical spectrum of mutations in SCN1A gene: severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy and related epilepsies. Epilepsy Res 70 Suppl 1, S223 (2006); George, A. L., Jr., Inherited disorders of voltage-gated sodium channels. J Clin Invest 115 (8), 1990 (2005); Misra, S, N., Kahlig, K. M., and George, A. L., Jr., Impaired NaV1.2 function and reduced cell surface expression in benign familial neonatal-infantile seizures. Epilepsia 49 (9), 1535 (2008)). Mutations of the NaV 1.4 cause muscular disorders like paramyotonia congenital (Vicart, S., Sternberg, D., Fontaine, B., and Meola, G., Human skeletal muscle sodium channelopathies. Neurol Sci 26 (4), 194 (2005)). NaV 1.5 mutations result in cardiac abnormalities like Brugada Syndrome and long QT syndrome (Bennett, P. B., Yazawa, K., Makita, N., and George, A. L., Jr., Molecular mechanism for an inherited cardiac arrhythmia. Nature 376 (6542), 683 (1995); Darbar, D. et al., Cardiac sodium channel (SCN5A) variants associated with atrial fibrillation. Circulation 117 (15), 1927 (2008); Wang, Q. et al., SCN5A mutations associated with an inherited cardiac arrhythmia, long QT syndrome. Cell 80 (5), 805 (1995)).
Recent discoveries have demonstrated that mutations in the gene that encodes the NaV 1.7 channel (SCN9A) can cause both enhanced and reduced pain syndromes. Work by Waxman's group and others have identified at least 15 mutations that result in enhanced current through NaV 1.7 and are linked to dominant congenital pain syndromes. Mutations that lower the threshold for NaV 1.7 activation cause inherited erythromelalgia (IEM). IEM patients exhibit abnormal burning pain in their extremities. Mutations that interfere with the normal inactivation properties of NaV 1.7 lead to prolonged sodium currents and cause paroxysmal extreme pain disorder (PEPD). PEPD patients exhibit periocular, perimandibular, and rectal pain symptoms that progresses throughout life (Drenth, J. P. et al., SCN9A mutations define primary erythermalgia as a neuropathic disorder of voltage gated sodium channels. J Invest Dermatol 124 (6), 1333 (2005); Estacion, M. et al., NaV 1.7 gain-of-function mutations as a continuum: A1632E displays physiological changes associated with erythromelalgia and paroxysmal extreme pain disorder mutations and produces symptoms of both disorders. J Neurosci 28 (43), 11079 (2008)).
NaV 1.7 null mutations in human patients were recently described by several groups (Ahmad, S. et al., A stop codon mutation in SCN9A causes lack of pain sensation. Hum Mol Genet. 16 (17), 2114 (2007); Cox, J. J. et al., An SCN9A channelopathy causes congenital inability to experience pain. Nature 444 (7121), 894 (2006); Goldberg, Y. P. et al., Loss-of-function mutations in the NaV 1.7 gene underlie congenital indifference to pain in multiple human populations. Clin Genet 71 (4), 311 (2007)). In all cases patients exhibit congenital indifference to pain. These patients report no pain under any circumstances. Many of these patients suffer dire injuries early in childhood since they do not have the protective, normal pain that helps to prevent tissue damage and develop appropriate protective behaviors. Aside from the striking loss of pain sensation and reduced or absent of smell (Goldberg, Y. P. et al., Loss-of-function mutations in the NaV 1.7 gene underlie congenital indifference to pain in multiple human populations. Clin Genet 71 (4), 311 (2007)), these patients appear completely normal. Despite the normally high expression of NaV 1.7 in sympathetic neurons (Toledo-Aral, J. J. et al., Identification of PN1, a predominant voltage-dependent sodium channel expressed principally in peripheral neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 (4), 1527 (1997)) and adrenal chromatin cells (Klugbauer, N., Lacinova, L., Flockerzi, V., and Hofmann, F., Structure and functional expression of a new member of the tetrodotoxin-sensitive voltage-activated sodium channel family from human neuroendocrine cells. EMBO J 14 (6), 1084 (1995)), these NaV 1.7-null patients show no sign of neuroendocrine or sympathetic nervous dysfunction.
The gain of NaV 1.7 function mutations that cause pain, coupled with the loss of NaV 1.7 function mutations that abolish pain, provide strong evidence that NaV 1.7 plays an important role in human pain signaling. The relative good health of NaV 1.7-null patients indicates that ablation of NaV 1.7 is well tolerated in these patients.
Unfortunately, the efficacy of currently used sodium channel blockers for the disease states described above has been to a large extent limited by a number of side effects. These side effects include various CNS disturbances such as blurred vision, dizziness, nausea, and sedation as well more potentially life threatening cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac failure. Accordingly, there remains a need to develop additional Na channel antagonists, preferably those with higher potency and fewer side effects.